Mixing peoples > language All mark distinction from usurping Mestizo group Irony: C/creole ~ mestizo/aje opposed, but both are ways of naming cultural syncretism, change and invention Recent identities, unvalidated except at state level Reflect conflict b/w European powers/languages: Creole recalls English struggle vs Spanish, resists Sandinistas Common investment in Miskito Coast Creole language English-lexicon Creole w/early Miskito (flora, fauna) and later Spanish (modern/public life) borrowings; Spanish bilingualism > syntactic calques (Holm 1978, 1988)
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